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These numbers a(n), depending on the parity of the discriminants of Markoff forms Disc(n) = b(n)*(b(n) + 4) = A305312(n), with b(n) = A324250(n), enter the definition of representative parallel forms of Disc(n) and representation -m(n)^2, where m(n) = A002559(n) = (b(n) + 2)/3 are the Markoff numbers, in the following way. FPara(n) := [-m(n)^2, 2*j(n), -(j^2(n) - a(n))/m(n)^2] or [-m(n)^2, 2*j(n) + 1, -(j(n)^2 +j(n) - a(n))/m(n)^2], if Disc(n) is even or odd, respectively, with j(n) from the interval [0, m(n)^2 - 1] such that the third member of FPara(n) becomes an integer. See the W. Lang link in A324251, section 3 for representative parallel forms, and the Buell and Scholz-Schoeneberg references given there.

The trivial solution (x = 1, y = 0) of each of the #rpapfs (number of representative parallel and primitive forms) Fpara(n;k), for k = 1, 2, ..., #rpapfs, representing -m(n)^2 leads to a fundamental solution of any primitive form F = [a, b, c] = a*x^2 + b*x*y + c*y^2 of discriminant Disc := b^2 - 4*a*c and representing - m(n)^2, by a certain proper (determinant +1) equivalence transformation. For the Markoff triples the principal reduced form F_p = [1, b(n), -b(n)], representing -m(n)^2 is of interest. It is a member of a 2-cycle of reduced forms together with F = [-b(n), b(n), 1].

For these Markoff forms see Cassels, p. 31. A link to the two original Markoff references is given in A305308.

MF(n) = f_{m(n)}(x, y) = m(n)*F_{m(n)}(x, y) = m(n)*x^2 + (3*m(n) - 2*k(n))*x*y + (l(n) - 3*k(n))*y^2, with the Markoff number m = m(n) = A002559(n) and l(n) = (k(n)^2 + 1)/m(n), for n >= 1.

Every m(n) is proved to appear as largest member of a Markoff triple MT(n) = (m_1(n), m_2(n), m(n)), with positive integers m_1(n) < m_2(n) < m(n) for n >= 3 (MT(1) = (1, 1, 1) and MT(2) = (1, 1, 2)) satisfying the Markoff equation m_1(n)^2 + m_2(n)^2 + m(n)^2 = 3*m_1(n)*m_2(n)*m(n). The famous Markoff uniqueness conjecture is that m(n) as largest member determines exactly one ordered triple MT(n). See, e.g., the Aigner reference, pp. 38-39, and Corollary 3.5, p. 48. [In numerating the sequence with n related to A002559(n) this conjecture is assumed to be true. - Wolfdieter Lang, Jul 29 2018]

The nonnegative integers k(n) are defined for the Markoff forms given by Cassels by k(n) = min{k1(n), k2(n)}, where m_1(n)*k1(n) - m_2(n) == 0 (mod m(n)), with 0 <= k1(n) < m(n), and m_2(n)*k2(n) - m_1(n) == 0 (mod m(n)), with 0 <= k2(n) < m(n). The k1 and k2 sequences are k1 = [0, 1, 2, 5, 17, 13, 34, 99, 119, 89, 179, 233, 577, 818, 610, 1777, 1597, 3363, 2673, 2923, 5609, 4181, 6089, 10946, 19601, 22095, 26536, 31881, 38447, 28657, 39916, 51709, 114243, 75025, 113922, 263522, 206855, 196418, 396263, 572063, ...], and k2 = [0, 1, 3, 8, 12, 21, 55, 70, 75, 144, 254, 377, 408, 507, 987, 1120, 2584, 2378, 3793, 4638, 3468, 6765, 8612, 17711, 13860, 15571, 16725, 19760, 23763, 46368, 56641, 83428, 80782, 121393, 180763, 162867, 292538, 317811, 249755, 353702, ...].

The discriminant of the form MF(n) = f_{m(n)}(x, y) is D(n) = 9*m(n)^2 - 4. D(n) = A305312(n), for n >= 1. Because D(n) > 0 (not a square) this is an indefinite binary quadratic form, for n >= 1. See Cassels Fig. 2 on p. 32 for the Markoff tree with these forms.

The quadratic irrational xi, determined by the solution with positive square root of f_{m(n)}(x, 1) = 0, is xi(n) = ((2*k - 3*m) + sqrt(D))/(2*m) (the argument n has been dropped). The regular continued fraction is eventually periodic, but not purely periodic. One can find equivalent Markoff forms determining purely periodic quadratic irrationals. The corresponding k sequence is given in A305311.

For the approximation of xi(n) with infinitely many rationals (in lowest terms) Perron's unimodular invariant M(xi) enters. For quadratic irrationals M(xi) < 3, and the values coincide with the discrete Lagrange spectrum < 3: M(xi(n)) = Lagrange(n) = sqrt{D(n)}/m(n), n >= 1. For n=1..4 see A002163, A010466, A200991 and A305308.

The indefinite binary quadratic Markoff form MF(n) = f_{m(n}(x, y) = m(n)*x^2 +(3*m(n) - 2*k(n))*x*y + ((k(n)^2 +1)/m(n) - 3*k(n))*y^2 with m(n) = A002559(n), for n >= 1, leads to purely periodic continued fractions for the solution x = xi(n) of f_{m(n)}(x, 1) = 0 with positive square root, namely xi(n) = ((2*k(n) - 3*m(n)) + sqrt(D(n)))/(2*m(n)) with discriminant D(n) = A305312(n). This form f_{m(n)}(x, y) is equivalent to the form fC_{m(n)}(x, y) given by Cassels (p. 31) with the k-sequence given in A305310.

The uniqueness conjecture (see A305310, also for the Aigner reference) is here assumed to be true. - Wolfdieter Lang, Jul 29 2018

The second member m_2 of the Markoff (Markov) triple MT(n) = (m_1(n), m_2(n), m(n)) with m_1(n) <= m_2(n) <= m(n), for n >= 1, with m(n) = A002559(n) is given in A305314(n). For n>=3 the inequalities are strict. The existence of MT(n) with largest number m(n) is proved. The uniqueness is conjectured. The Markoff equation is (the argument n is dropped) m_1^2 + m_2^2 + m^2 = 3*m_1*m_2*m. See the references under A002559.

See A305313 for comments, and A002559 for references.

The indefinite binary quadratic form F(n,x,y) = x^2 - 3*m(n)*x*y + y^2 = [1, -3*m(n), 1] representing -m(n)^2 with m(n) = A002559(n), determines Markoff triples MT(n) = (x(n) = A305313(n), y(n) = A305314(n), m(n)) with x(n) < y(n) < m(n), for n >= 3. For n = 1 and 2: x(n) = y(n) = 1. The Frobenius-Markoff conjecture is that this solution is unique. This form F(n,x,y) has discriminant D(n) = (3*m(n))^2 - 4 = a(n)*(a(n) + 4) = A305312(n) > 0.

Because -3*m(n) < 0 this form F(n,x,y) is not reduced (see e.g., the Buell reference, or the W. Lang link in A225953 for the definition).

The principal reduced form for F(n,x,y) is prF(n,X,Y) = X^2 + a(n)*X*Y - a(n)*Y^2 = [1, a(n), -a(n)]. (See, e.g., Lemma 2 of the W. Lang link in A225953 where b = a(n), f(D(n)) = ceiling(sqrt(D(n))) = 3*m(n), and D(n) and f(D(n)) have the same parity.) The relation between these forms is F(n,Y,Y-X) = prF(n,X,Y) with Y > 0, Y-X > 0, and X <= 0 (for n >= 3, X < 0).